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Journal papers

On the oversupply of heat to bedrooms during winter in highly insulated dwellings with heat recovery ventilation
Authors: Publication Year: 2016

Abstract The study presented in this paper originated from observations made regarding the thermal conditions during winter in highly insulated dwellings with mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR). Previous observations indicate an oversupply of heat to bedrooms and a successive extensive window ventilation, which leads to an increased space-heating demand. Detailed simulations were conducted to explain the causes for the observed thermal conditions and to elaborate improved solutions for heating and ventilation during winter. Various MVHR solutions and control strategies, as well as building design solutions, were investigated regarding their impact on the thermal conditions in bedrooms and on the…
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Cost-optimal energy system design in Zero Energy Buildings with resulting grid impact: A case study of a German multi-family house
Authors: Publication Year: 2016

Abstract Zero Energy Buildings (ZEBs) are considered as one of the key elements to meet the Energy Strategy of the European Union. This paper investigates cost-optimal solutions for the energy system design in a ZEB and the subsequent grid impact. We use a Mixed Integer Linear (MILP) optimisation model that simultaneously optimises the building’s energy system design and the hourly operation. As a ZEB have onsite energy generation to compensate for the energy consumption, it is both importing and exporting electricity. The hourly time resolution identifies the factors that influence this import/export situation, also known as the building’s grid impact.…
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A Review of Materials Science Research Pathways and Opportunities for Building Integrated Photovoltaics
Authors: Publication Year: 2016

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Simple modelling procedure for the indoor thermal environment of highly-insulated buildings heated by wood stoves
Authors: Publication Year: 2016

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Building integration of aerogel glazings
Authors: Publication Year: 2016

Abstract The recent building practices have shown that aerogel glazings can be used as a multifunctional building envelope component for different purposes. Nevertheless, the distinctive physical properties and energy performance of aerogel glazings suggest that building integration of aerogel glazings may create architectural challenges, aesthetic problems, as well as concerns on their durability and environmental impact, thus highlighting the importance of developing guidelines to regulate the use of aerogel glazings in the building sector. This study discusses various approaches for the building integration of aerogel glazings by presenting a number of successful examples; the advantages of integration are quantified and…
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Avoiding snow and ice formation on exterior solar cell surfaces – a review of research pathways and opportunities
Authors: Publication Year: 2016

Abstract Today energy-efficient and energy-harvesting buildings experience an ever-increasing interest and demand. Building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) may in this respect represent a powerful and versatile tool for reaching the goal of zero energy and zero emission buildings. The BIPV systems replace the outer building envelope skin, thus serving simultanously as both a climate screen and a power source generating electricity. However, snow and ice formation on the exterior solar cell surfaces reduce their performance and may also lead to faster deterioration. Hence, if one could find a way to develop solar cells which were able to avoid snow and ice…
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Aerogel vs. argon insulation in windows: A greenhouse gas emissions analysis
Authors: Publication Year: 2016

Abstract The scope of this study is a comprehensive analysis of the greenhouse gas emissions from the partial substitution of triple-glazing units with argon gas (U-value of 0.79 W/m2 K) with double-glazing units with either monolithic aerogel (U-value of 0.65 W/m2 K) or granular aerogel (U-value of 0.31 W/m2d K). A residential building located near Oslo and fully upgraded with passive house solutions is used as a case study for this analysis. A cradle-to-site analysis is performed on the facade components. Two replacement schedules and three window-to-wall ratios are used to evaluate the differences in total emissions. Sensitivity analyses based on increasing the fraction of the…
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Influence of PV technology and system design on the emission balance of a net zero emission building concept
Authors: Publication Year: 2016

Abstract This paper presents an analysis of how the design of a photovoltaic (PV) system influences the greenhouse gas emission balance in a net zero emission building (nZEB). In a zero emission building, the emissions associated both with the energy required in the operation of the building (operational emissions) and the energy used to produce the building materials (embodied emissions) are offset by renewable energy generated on-site (avoided emissions). The analysis is applied to a nZEB concept for a single-family building, developed by the Norwegian Research Centre on Zero Emission Buildings. Previous analyses have shown that the installation of a…
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Embodied greenhouse gas emissions from PV systems in Norwegian residential Zero Emission Pilot Buildings
Authors: Publication Year: 2016

Abstract Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the combustion of fossil energy need to be reduced to combat global climate change. For zero energy and Zero Emission Buildings (ZEB), photovoltaic solar energy systems are often installed. When the goal is to build a life cycle Zero Emission Building, all emissions come under scrutiny. Emissions from photovoltaic (PV) energy systems in Zero Emission Buildings have been shown to have a relative large share of material emissions. In this paper, we compare GHG emissions per kW h of electricity and greenhouse gas emission payback times (GPBT) for three residential PV systems in Zero Emission…
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Search for the optimal window-to-wall ratio in office buildings in different European climates and the implications on total energy saving potential
Authors: Publication Year: 2016

Abstract This paper deals with the search for the optimal window-to-wall ratio (WWR) in different European climates in relation to an office building characterized by best-available technologies for building envelope components and installations. The optimal WWR value is the one that minimizes, on an annual basis, the sum of the energy use for heating, cooling and lighting. By means of integrated thermal and lighting simulations, the optimal WWR for each of the main orientations was found in four different locations, covering the mid-latitude region (35° to 60° N), from temperate to continental climates. Moreover, the robustness of the results was…
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Accelerated ageing and durability of double-glazed sealed insulating windows panes and impact on heating demand in buildings
Authors: Publication Year: 2016

Abstract A crucial property for double-glazed sealed insulating window panes is to maintain their thermal insulating properties and thus low U-values. However, degradation and thus subsequent reduction or loss of low-conductance gas concentration may occur in the sealed glazing units by their exposure to outdoor climate. The choice of spacers is important to keep as low thermal transport through the window panes as possible, i.e. low U-value. In addition, the type of spacers may also influence their durability and resistance towards ageing, which hence may be characterized by the low-conductance noble gas concentration, e.g. argon, krypton or xenon. Ageing and…
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Effect of storage and curing conditions at elevated temperatures on aerogel-incorporated mortar samples based on UHPC recipe
Authors: Publication Year: 2016

Abstract The effect of elevated temperature during storage and curing of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) formulated aerogel-incorporated mortar (AIM) samples was investigated. It was found that an effective aerogel loading of 60 vol% of total bulk volume was possible for producing AIM samples with suitable thermal and mechanical properties under optimized storing and curing conditions. AIM samples with compressive strengths of up to ≈19 MPa was achieved and the corresponding thermal conductivity was ≈0.4 W/(mK). For more insulating concrete, 70 vol% aerogel was needed and AIM samples with thermal conductivity as low as ≈0.1 W/(mK) were cast. In general, AIM samples with strengths of up…
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Performance of a lab-scale membrane-based energy exchanger
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract Efficient energy recovery from used air with the goal of reducing energy use is important for realizing low energy houses. Rotary heat exchangers are very energy efficient, but have the drawback of transferring odours from exhaust air to fresh supply air. To avoid this, flat plate heat exchangers are commonly used where odour transfer might cause problems. Nevertheless, these may not properly handle water condensation and frost formation at low outdoor temperatures. The so-called membrane-based energy exchangers are an alternative to the flat plate heat exchanger. In a membrane-based exchanger, moisture is transferred from the humid exhaust air to…
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Performance of a lab-scale membrane-based energy exchanger
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract Efficient energy recovery from used air with the goal of reducing energy use is important for realizing low energy houses. Rotary heat exchangers are very energy efficient, but have the drawback of transferring odours from exhaust air to fresh supply air. To avoid this, flat plate heat exchangers are commonly used where odour transfer might cause problems. Nevertheless, these may not properly handle water condensation and frost formation at low outdoor temperatures. The so-called membrane-based energy exchangers are an alternative to the flat plate heat exchanger. In a membrane-based exchanger, moisture is transferred from the humid exhaust air to…
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User evaluation of the indoor climate of the first passive house school in Norway
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract The indoor climate of the first passive house school in Norway was evaluated with the aid of a questionnaire (Örebro) with approximately 340 respondents, and three interview rounds with a total of 23 informants. The intention was to reveal whether the users experienced any problems or possibly better conditions than in a regular school building. The interviews showed that, overall, the users were satisfied with the building. The survey showed generally good results for the indoor climate. Questionnaire results were compared with reference material consisting of data for average school buildings. The indoor climate of Marienlyst School was better…
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Perspective of aerogel glazings in energy efficient buildings
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract The application perspective of aerogel glazings in energy efficient buildings has been discussed by evaluating their energy efficiency, process economics, and environmental impact. For such a purpose, prototype aerogel glazing units have been assembled by incorporating aerogel granules into the air cavity of corresponding double glazing units, which enables an experimental investigation on their physical properties and a subsequent numerical simulation on their energy performance. The results show that, compared to the double glazing counterparts, aerogel glazings can contribute to about 21% reduction in energy consumptions related to heating, cooling, and lighting; payback time calculations indicate that the return…
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Influence of the occupant’s behavior on the heating needs and the energy system performance : A case of well-insulated detached houses in the cold climates
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract Modeling simplification related to occupant’s behavior is a major cause of gap between actual and model’s predicted energy use of buildings. This paper aims to identify those parameters of realistic occupants-related heat gains that actually cause this gap. The investigation therefore, systematically distinguishes the occupant behavior using three behavior parameters, namely: the occupancy behavior, the appliance use behavior and the family size. The effect of these parameters is investigated on a building for two different insulation standards using heat pump as energy supply system. The results identifies the occupancy patterns and the household size as two major parameters that explains a large portion…
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Identifying key design parameters of the integrated energy system for a residential Zero Emission Building in Norway
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract This study examined an integrated solution of the building energy supply system consisting of flat plate solar thermal collectors in combination with a ground-source heat pump and an exhaust air heat pump for the heating and cooling, and production of domestic hot water. The supply energy system was proposed to a 202 m2 single-family demo dwelling (SFD), which is defined by the Norwegian Zero Emission Building standard. The main design parameters were analyzed in order to find the most essential parameters, which could significantly influenced the total energy use. This study found that 85% of the total heating demand of the…
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Low-emissivity materials for building applications: a state-of-the-art review and future research perspective
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract Low-emissivity (low-e) materials can be used in order to reduce energy usage in both opaque and transparent areas of a building. The main focus for low-e materials is to reduce the heat transfer through thermal radiation. Furthermore, low-e materials will also influence on the daylight and total solar radiation energy throughput in windows, the latter one often characterized as the solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC). This work reviews low-e materials and products found on the market, and their possible implementations and benefits when used in buildings. The SHGC is often left out by many countries in energy labellings of…
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The suitability of air-heating in residential passive house buildings from the occupant’s point of view
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract The substantial reduction of required heating load in passive house buildings has led to an integration of heating in the ventilation system by post-heating the supply-air, called air-heating. The incorporation of heating in the ventilation system constitutes a departure from a well-established customary practice of strictly separating heating and ventilation in the indoor climate design. It is therefore imperative to thoroughly investigate and evaluate air-heating with regard to effects on the indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort. Simulations and laboratory measurements suggest that air-heating has no adverse effects on IAQ and thermal comfort. The purpose of this paper…
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Phase Change Materials for Building Applications: A State-of-the-Art review and Future Research Opportunities
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract Phase change materials (PCM) have received considerable attention over the last decade for use in latent heat thermal storage (LHTS) systems. PCMs give the ability to store passive solar and other heat gains as latent heat within a specific temperature range, leading to a reduction of energy usage, an increase in thermal comfort by smoothing out temperature fluctuations throughout the day and a reduction and/or shift in peak loads. The interest around PCMs has been growing significantly over the last decade. Hence, several commercial products have arrived on the market with various areas of use in building applications. This…
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The legal dwelling: how Norwegian research engineers domesticate construction law. Engineering Studies
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract The considerable amount of energy spent on the construction, maintenance, and demolition of buildings draws attention to sustainable development in the construction sector. Regarded as both tools and frameworks, laws are expected to sustain and speed technological innovation. With the STS (Science and Technology Studies) theory of domestication and in-depth interviews with building researchers studying zero emission buildings in Norway, I discuss the role of research engineers in the domestication of law, that is, the translation of European Directives for building codes and technical requirements, and the mediation of these legal frameworks for industry and practitioners. I classify two…
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Experimental Investigations of Aerogel-Incorporated Ultra-High Performance Concrete
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract Improvements to concrete will have a large impact in the construction and building sector. As the attention is drawn towards energy-efficient and zero emission buildings, the thermal properties of concrete will be important. Attempts are being made to decrease the thermal conductivity of concrete composites while retaining as much as possible of the mechanical strength. In this study experimental investigations of aerogel-incorporated mortar (AIM) with up to 80 vol% aerogel are prepared utilizing a reduced ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) recipe. It was found that at 50 vol% aerogel content, the AIM sample possessed a compressive strength of 20 MPa and a thermal…
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Spectral and angular solar properties of a PCM-filled double glazing unit
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract: Background Phase change materials (PCMs) have been proposed as a means to increase the thermal inertia of glazing systems. These materials have optical features that need to be investigated and characterised in order to better understand the potential of these systems and to provide reliable data for numerical simulations.   Methods The spectral and angular behaviour of different PCM glazing samples, characterised by different thicknesses of PCMs, were investigated by means of commercial spectrophotometer and by means of a dedicated optical test bed that includes a large integrating sphere with a diameter of 0.75 m. Such equipment was necessary because…
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Review of heat/energy recovery exchangers for use in ZEBs in cold climate countries
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract Realisation of Zero Energy Buildings (ZEB) for residential use cannot succeed without: minimising leakages, increasing thermal insulation and using reliable and energy efficient system solutions. However, very airtight houses may have a negative impact on thermal comfort and indoor air quality. Focussing on ventilation systems then becomes a requirement. In cold climates, temperature differences between indoor and outdoor air often exceed 40 °C during winter. State-of-the-art heat recovery systems may not be able to handle these differences while providing proper air quality and preventing excessively dry indoor air. The present study of energy recovery systems focuses on apartment buildings located…
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Spectral and angular solar properties of a PCM-filled double glazing unit
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract Background Phase change materials (PCMs) have been proposed as a means to increase the thermal inertia of glazing systems. These materials have optical features that need to be investigated and characterised in order to better understand the potential of these systems and to provide reliable data for numerical simulations. Methods The spectral and angular behaviour of different PCM glazing samples, characterised by different thicknesses of PCMs, were investigated by means of commercial spectrophotometer and by means of a dedicated optical test bed that includes a large integrating sphere with a diameter of 0.75 m. Such equipment was necessary because of…
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Thermal performance of in-between shading systems in multilayer glazing units – Hot-box measurements and numerical simulations
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract Shading systems are widely used, also in Nordic climates, in conjunction with glazed facade in office buildings. The primary functions of the solar shading devices are to control solar gains leading to cooling needs during operational hours and reduction of discomfort caused by glare. A secondary property of shading devices incorporated in glazing units is that they can be utilized as an additional layer in the glazing unit when the shading device is deployed. This can improve the thermal transmittance value (U-value) of the windows. It can be deployed during night-time or in periods when a blocked view does…
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Zero emission building and conversion factors between electricity consumption and emissions of greenhouse gases in a long term perspective
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract The CO2 emissions from a building’s power system will change over the life time of the building, and this need to be taken into account to verify whether a building is Zero Emission (ZEB) or not. This paper describes how conversion factors between electricity demand and emissions can be calculated for the European power system in a long term perspective through the application of a large scale electricity market model (EMPS). Examples of two types of factors are given: a conversion factor for average emissions per kWh for the whole European power system as well as a marginal factor for…
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The impact of an ideal dynamic building envelope on the energy performance of low energy office buildings
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract This paper shows the results of a research activity aimed at assessing the advantages of an ideal adaptive building skin over conventional building envelope systems. The basic idea underlying the research consists in imagining an ideal building envelope system characterised by the capability of continuously changing (within a certain range) some of its thermo-physical and optical properties. The reason for the continuous tuning of thermo-physical and optical properties lies in the assumption that an optimised (fixed) configuration, where the properties do not change over time, is not able to minimise the total energy demand of the building at each…
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Optimization of solar energy potential for buildings in urban areas – a Norwegian case study
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract The paper presents a case study of an office building with a façade integrated PV system in Norway. Due to the urban surrounding the PV system is subject to significant overshadowing. The aim is to optimize the solar energy potential of the building in order to propose improved alternatives to the current system applying a multi-level simulation approach. The first level is performed to calculate the maximum solar potential on the building envelope in an unobstructed scenario. The second level examines the shading effect on the building in its urban context. The analyses allow localizing the areas of the…
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Case study on residential building renovation and its impact on the energy use and thermal comfort
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract In Norway, a large portion of the building stock originates from the period from 1955 to 1990. Many of these buildings fail to comply with the current building regulations regarding the energy consumption. In this study, the possibility for upgrading a hypothetical apartment building with an oil-based heating system has been investigated employing simulations from the IDA Indoor Climate and Energy software. For the construction of the original building, customs and regulations from the period 1981-90 were employed, and the building envelope was upgraded to the requirements of the Norwegian research centre on Zero Emission Buildings. Two alternative heating…
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The influence of different electricity-to-emissions conversion factors on the choice of insulation materials
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract The current practice of building energy upgrade typically uses thick layers of insulation in order to comply with the energy codes. Similarly, the Norwegian national energy codes for residential buildings are moving towards very low U-values for the building envelope. New and more advanced materials, such as vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) and aerogel, have been presented as alternative solutions to commonly used insulation materials. Both aerogel and VIPs offer very high thermal resistance, which is a favourable characteristic in energy upgrading as the same insulation level can be achieved with thinner insulation layers. This paper presents the results of energy…
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Life cycle analysis of two nZEB concepts
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract The net-zero emissions building (nZEB) performance is investigated for building operation (EO) and embodied emissions in materials (EE) for Norway's cold climate. nZEB concepts for new residential and office buildings are conceived in order to understand the balance and implications between operational and embodied emissions over the building's life. The main drivers for the CO2 equivalent (CO2e) emissions are revealed for both building concepts through a detailed emissions calculation. The influence of the CO2e factor for electricity is emphasized and it is shown to have significant impact on the temporal evolution of the overall CO2e emissions balance. The results…
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Integration of life cycle assessment in the design of hollow silica nanospheres for thermal insulation applications
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

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Analysis of load match and grid interaction indicators in net zero energy buildings with simulated and monitored data
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract The main objective of this paper is to contribute to the discussion on the role of Net Zero Energy Buildings (Net ZEBs) on future energy systems by the interplay between on-site generation and the building loads, often called load matching, and the resulting import/export interaction with the surrounding electricity grid, commonly named grid interaction. This investigation analyzes five case studies with high resolution data, three of which are based on real monitored buildings. The research aims at selecting and suggesting a limited set of quantitative indicators that: (a) can provide practical information for building as well as grid designers…
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Zero energy buildings and the rebound effect: A solution to the paradox of energy efficiency?
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

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Insulating glazing units with silica aerogel granules: The impact of particle size
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

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Interior insulation retrofit of a historical brick wall using vacuum insulation panels: Hygrothermal numerical simulations and laboratory investigations
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

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Solar shading control strategies in cold climates – heating, cooling demand and daylight availability in office spaces
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract Modern office buildings often have large glazed areas. Incident solar radiation can lead to large cooling demands during hot periods although the solar radiation can help reduce heating demands during cool periods.Previous studies have shown that large parts of the net energy demand of an office building is related to window heat loss and cooling demands induced by solar irradiance. In this article, the authors found that, even in what traditionally has been considered to be a heating-dominated climate, cooling demands dominate the net energy demand of an office building. Solar shading systems are vital to reduce the cooling…
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Analysis of grid interaction indicators in net zero-energy buildings with sub-hourly collected data
Authors: Publication Year: 2015

Abstract This paper aimed to contribute to the discussion about the role of net zero-energy buildings (ZEBs) or nearly ZEBs in future energy systems, from the perspective of the resulting import/export interaction with the surrounding energy grid (commonly named grid interaction (GI)). This investigation analyses three buildings with measured data at sub-hourly time resolution. The goal of this paper was to quantify the effect of using high-resolution data (one or a few minutes) versus hourly resolution in the GI analysis of buildings with an on-site generation system. A limited set of quantitative GI indicators have been selected: the generation multiple,…
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Net-zero buildings: incorporating embodied impacts.
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract The design and assessment of net-zero buildings commonly focus exclusively on the operational phase, ignoring the embodied environmental impacts over the building life cycle. An analysis is presented on the consequences of integrating embodied impacts into the assessment of the environmental advantageousness of net-zero concepts. Fundamental issues needing consideration in the design process – based on the evaluation of primary energy use and related greenhouse gas emissions – are examined by comparing three net-zero building design and assessment cases: (1) no embodied impacts included, net balance limited to the operation stage only; (2) embodied impacts included but evaluated separately…
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Lightweight and thermally insulating aerogel glass materials
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract Glass represents an important and widely used building material, and crucial aspects to be addressed include thermal conductivity, visible light transmittance, and weight for windows with improved energy efficiency. In this work, by sintering monolithic silica aerogel precursors at elevated temperatures, aerogel glass materials were successfully prepared, which were characterized by low thermal conductivity [k ≈ 0.17–0.18 W/(mK)], high visible transparency (Tvis ≈ 91–96 % at 500 nm), low density (ρ ≈ 1.60–1.79 g/cm3), and enhanced mechanical strength (typical elastic modulus Er ≈ 2.0–6.4 GPa). These improved properties were derived from a series of successive gelation and aging steps during the desiccation of silica aerogels. The involved sol → gel → glass transformation was investigated by means…
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Robustness classification of materials, assemblies and buildings
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

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Resilience the urban landscape as a social-ecological system
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

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Thermal superinsulation for building applications – From concepts to experimental investigations
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract The application of traditional thermal insulation materials requires thicker building envelopes in order to satisfy the requirements of the emerging zero energy and zero emission buildings. This work summarizes the steps from the state-of-theart thermal insulation materials and solutions, like vacuum insulation panels (VIP), gas-filled panels (GFP) and aerogels which all have various drawbacks, to our concepts and experimental investigations for making superinsulation materials (SIM) like e.g. nano insulation materials (NIM).
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Experimental analysis of an advanced dynamic glazing prototype integrating PCM and thermotropic layers
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

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A net zero emission concept analysis of a single-family house
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

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Analysis of the air heating in Norwegian passive houses using detailed dynamic simulations
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

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Energy performance assessment of an advanced integrated façade through experimental data analysis
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

Abstract This paper deals with the experimental assessment of the energy performance of two Advanced Integrated Façade modules (AIF) characterized by two very similar configurations. The two AIF modules were installed on the south-exposed façade of an outdoor test cell facility (a real-scale mockup of an office building) and continuous measurements were carried out for more than one year. Data collected during the experimental campaign were analyzed to evaluate the energy performance and thermo-physical behaviour of the AIF modules. The performances of the two systems were assessed by comparison and by means of conventional and advanced synthetic metrics. The results…
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Experimental analysis of the energy performance of a PCM glazing system
Authors: Publication Year: 2014

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